The Rust Programming Language

In all of the previous chapters in this book, we’ve been discussing code written in Rust that has memory safety guarantees enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hiding out inside of it, unsafe Rust, which does not enforce these memory safety guarantees. Unsafe Rust works just like regular Rust does, but it gives you extra superpowers not available in safe Rust code.

Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When trying to determine if code upholds some guarantees or not, it’s better to reject some programs that are valid than it is to accept some programs that are invalid. There are some times when your code might be okay, but Rust thinks it’s not! In these cases, you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “trust me, I know what I’m doing.” The downside is that you’re on your own; if you get unsafe code wrong, problems due to memory unsafety like null pointer dereferencing can occur.

There’s another reason that Rust needs to have unsafe code: the underlying hardware of computers is inherently not safe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, there would be some tasks that you simply could not do. But Rust needs to be able to let you do low-level systems programming like directly interacting with your operating system, or even writing your own operating system! That’s part of the goals of the language. We need some way to do these kinds of things.

We switch into unsafe Rust by using the unsafe keyword and starting a new block that holds the unsafe code. There are four actions that you can take in unsafe Rust that you can’t in safe Rust. We call these the “unsafe superpowers.” We haven’t seen most of these features yet since they’re only usable with unsafe!

1. Dereferencing a raw pointer
2. Calling an unsafe function or method
3. Accessing or modifying a mutable static variable
4. Implementing an unsafe trait

It’s important to understand that unsafe doesn’t turn off the borrow checker or disable any other of Rust’s safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe code, it will still be checked. The only thing the unsafe keyword does is give you access to these four features that aren’t checked by the compiler for memory safety. You still get some degree of safety inside of an unsafe block! Furthermore, unsafe does not mean the code inside the block is dangerous or definitely will have memory safety problems: the intent is that you as the programmer will ensure that the code inside an unsafe block will have valid memory, since you’ve turned off the compiler checks.

People are fallible, however, and mistakes will happen. By requiring these four unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with unsafe, if you make a mistake and get an error related to memory safety, you’ll know that it has to be related to one of the places that you opted into this unsafety. That makes the cause of memory safety bugs much easier to find, since we know Rust is checking all of the other code for us. To get this benefit of only having a few places to investigate memory safety bugs, it’s important to contain your unsafe code to as small of an area as possible. Any code inside of an unsafe block is suspect when debugging a memory problem: keep unsafe blocks small and you’ll thank yourself later since you’ll have less code to investigate.

In order to isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s a good idea to enclose unsafe code within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll be discussing once we get into unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been audited. This prevents uses of unsafe from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to make use of the functionality implemented with unsafe code, since using a safe abstraction is safe.

Let’s talk about each of the four unsafe superpowers in turn, and along the way we’ll look at some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code.

Way back in Chapter 4, we first learned about references. We also learned that the compiler ensures that references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types similar to references called raw pointers. Just like references, we can have an immutable raw pointer and a mutable raw pointer, written as *const T and *mut T, respectively. In the context of raw pointers, “immutable” means that the pointer can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced.

Raw pointers are different than references and smart pointers in a few ways. Raw pointers:

• Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules and have both immutable and a mutable pointer or multiple mutable pointers to the same location
• Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory
• Are allowed to be null
• Don’t implement any automatic clean-up

Listing 19-1 shows how to create raw pointers from references:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
let mut num = 5;

let r1 = &num as *const i32;
let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32;
#}

Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references

The *const T type is an immutable raw pointer, and *mut T is a mutable raw pointer. We’ve created raw pointers by using as to cast an immutable and a mutable reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. These particular raw pointers will be valid since we created them directly from references that are guaranteed to be valid, but we can’t make that assumption about any raw pointer.

Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there may be data at that address, there may not be any data at that address, the compiler might optimize the code so that there is no memory access, or your program might segfault. There’s not usually a good reason to be writing code like this, but it is possible:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
let address = 0x012345usize;
let r = address as *const i32;
#}

Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address

Note there’s no unsafe block in either Listing 19-1 or 19-2. You can create raw pointers in safe code, but you can’t dereference raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. Using the dereference operator, *, on a raw pointer requires an unsafe block, as shown in Listing 19-3:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
let mut num = 5;

let r1 = &num as *const i32;
let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32;

unsafe {
    println!("r1 is: {}", *r1);
    println!("r2 is: {}", *r2);
}
#}

Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an unsafe block

Creating a pointer can’t do any harm; it’s only when accessing the value that it points at that you might end up dealing with an invalid value.

Note also that in Listing 19-1 and 19-3 we created a *const i32 and a *mut i32 that both pointed to the same memory location, that of num. If we had tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to num instead of raw pointers, this would not have compiled due to the rule that says we can’t have a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With raw pointers, we are able to create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the same location, and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating a data race. Be careful!

With all of these dangers, why would we ever use raw pointers? One major use case is interfacing with C code, as we’ll see in the next section on unsafe functions. Another case is to build up safe abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. Let’s introduce unsafe functions then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe code.

The second operation that requires an unsafe block is calling an unsafe function. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular functions and methods, but they have an extra unsafe out front. Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively unsafe blocks. Here’s an unsafe function named dangerous:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
unsafe fn dangerous() {}

unsafe {
    dangerous();
}
#}

If we try to call dangerous without the unsafe block, we’ll get an error:

error[E0133]: call to unsafe function requires unsafe function or block
 --> <anon>:4:5
  |
4 |     dangerous();
  |     ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function

By inserting the unsafe block around our call to dangerous, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the documentation for this function, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that everything is correct.

As an example, let’s check out some functionality from the standard library, split_at_mut, and explore how we might implement it ourselves. This safe method is defined on mutable slices, and it takes one slice and makes it into two by splitting the slice at the index given as an argument, as demonstrated in Listing 19-4:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6];

let r = &mut v[..];

let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3);

assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]);
assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]);
#}

Listing 19-4: Using the safe split_at_mut function

This function can’t be implemented using only safe Rust. An attempt might look like Listing 19-5. For simplicity, we’re implementing split_at_mut as a function rather than a method, and only for slices of i32 values rather than for a generic type T:

fn split_at_mut(slice: &mut [i32], mid: usize) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) {
    let len = slice.len();

    assert!(mid <= len);

    (&mut slice[..mid],
     &mut slice[mid..])
}

Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of split_at_mut using only safe Rust

This function first gets the total length of the slice, then asserts that the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking that the parameter is less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index that’s greater than the length of the slice to split at, the function will panic before it attempts to use that index.

Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the initial slice to the mid index, and another from mid to the end of the slice.

If we try to compile this, we’ll get an error:

error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*slice` as mutable more than once at a time
 --> <anon>:6:11
  |
5 |     (&mut slice[..mid],
  |           ----- first mutable borrow occurs here
6 |      &mut slice[mid..])
  |           ^^^^^ second mutable borrow occurs here
7 | }
  | - first borrow ends here

Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay; our two &mut [i32] slices aren’t overlapping. However, Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we know something is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code.

Listing 19-6 shows how to use an unsafe block, a raw pointer, and some calls to unsafe functions to make the implementation of split_at_mut work:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
use std::slice;

fn split_at_mut(slice: &mut [i32], mid: usize) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) {
    let len = slice.len();
    let ptr = slice.as_mut_ptr();

    assert!(mid <= len);

    unsafe {
        (slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid),
         slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.offset(mid as isize), len - mid))
    }
}
#}

Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the split_at_mut function

Recall from Chapter 4 that slices are a pointer to some data and the length of the slice. We’ve often used the len method to get the length of a slice; we can use the as_mut_ptr method to get access to the raw pointer of a slice. In this case, since we have a mutable slice to i32 values, as_mut_ptr returns a raw pointer with the type *mut i32, which we’ve stored in the variable ptr.

The assertion that the mid index is within the slice stays the same. Then, the slice::from_raw_parts_mut function does the reverse from the as_mut_ptr and len methods: it takes a raw pointer and a length and creates a slice. We call slice::from_raw_parts_mut to create a slice that starts from ptr and is mid items long. Then we call the offset method on ptr with mid as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at mid, and we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after mid as the length.

Because slices are checked, they’re safe to use once we’ve created them. The function slice::from_raw_parts_mut is an unsafe function because it takes a raw pointer and trusts that this pointer is valid. The offset method on raw pointers is also unsafe, since it trusts that the location some offset after a raw pointer is also a valid pointer. We’ve put an unsafe block around our calls to slice::from_raw_parts_mut and offset to be allowed to call them, and we can tell by looking at the code and by adding the assertion that mid must be less than or equal to len that all the raw pointers used within the unsafe block will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and appropriate use of unsafe.

Note that the resulting split_at_mut function is safe: we didn’t have to add the unsafe keyword in front of it, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe abstraction to the unsafe code by writing an implementation of the function that uses unsafe code in a safe way by only creating valid pointers from the data this function has access to.

In contrast, the use of slice::from_raw_parts_mut in Listing 19-7 would likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory location and creates a slice ten thousand items long:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
use std::slice;

let address = 0x012345usize;
let r = address as *mut i32;

let slice = unsafe {
    slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000)
};
#}

Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location

We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there’s no guarantee that the slice this code creates contains valid i32 values. Attempting to use slice as if it was a valid slice would be undefined behavior.

Sometimes, your Rust code may need to interact with code written in another language. To do this, Rust has a keyword, extern, that facilitates creating and using a Foreign Function Interface (FFI). Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the abs function defined in the C standard library. Functions declared within extern blocks are always unsafe to call from Rust code:

Filename: src/main.rs

extern "C" {
    fn abs(input: i32) -> i32;
}

fn main() {
    unsafe {
        println!("Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", abs(-3));
    }
}

Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an extern function defined in another language

Within the extern "C" block, we list the names and signatures of functions defined in a library written in another language that we want to be able to call."C" defines which application binary interface (ABI) the external function uses. The ABI defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The "C" ABI is the most common, and follows the C programming language’s ABI.

Calling an external function is always unsafe. If we’re calling into some other language, that language does not enforce Rust’s safety guarantees. Since Rust can’t check that the external code is safe, we are responsible for checking the safety of the external code and indicating we have done so by using an unsafe block to call external functions.

The extern keyword is also used for creating an interface that allows other languages to call Rust functions. Instead of an extern block, we can add the extern keyword and specifying the ABI to use just before the fn keyword. We also add the #[no_mangle] annotation to tell the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. The call_from_c function in this example would be accessible from C code, once we’ve compiled to a shared library and linked from C:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
#[no_mangle]
pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() {
    println!("Just called a Rust function from C!");
}
#}

This usage of extern does not require unsafe

We’ve gone this entire book without talking about global variables. Many programming languages support them, and so does Rust. However, global variables can be problematic: for example, if you have two threads accessing the same mutable global variable, a data race can happen.

Global variables are called static in Rust. Listing 19-9 shows an example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value:

Filename: src/main.rs

static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!";

fn main() {
    println!("name is: {}", HELLO_WORLD);
}

Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable

static variables are similar to constants: their names are also in SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE by convention, and we must annotate the variable’s type, which is &'static str in this case. Only references with the 'static lifetime may be stored in a static variable. Because of this, the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime by itself and we don’t need to annotate it explicitly.

Accessing immutable static variables is safe. Values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory, and using the value will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to duplicate their data whenever they are used.

Another way in which static variables are different from constants is that static variables can be mutable. Both accessing and modifying mutable static variables is unsafe. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable static variable named COUNTER:

Filename: src/main.rs

static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0;

fn add_to_count(inc: u32) {
    unsafe {
        COUNTER += inc;
    }
}

fn main() {
    add_to_count(3);

    unsafe {
        println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER);
    }
}

Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe

Just like with regular variables, we specify that a static variable should be mutable using the mut keyword. Any time that we read or write from COUNTER has to be within an unsafe block. This code compiles and prints COUNTER: 3 as we would expect since it’s single threaded, but having multiple threads accessing COUNTER would likely result in data races.

Mutable data that is globally accessible is difficult to manage and ensure that there are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be unsafe. If possible, prefer using the concurrency techniques and threadsafe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 to have the compiler check that data accessed from different threads is done safely.

Finally, the last action we’re only allowed to take when we use the unsafe keyword is implementing an unsafe trait. We can declare that a trait is unsafe by adding the unsafe keyword before trait, and then implementing the trait must be marked as unsafe too, as shown in Listing 19-11:

# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
unsafe trait Foo {
    // methods go here
}

unsafe impl Foo for i32 {
    // method implementations go here
}
#}

Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait

Like unsafe functions, methods in an unsafe trait have some invariant that the compiler cannot verify. By using unsafe impl, we’re promising that we’ll uphold these invariants.

As an example, recall the Sync and Send marker traits from Chapter 16, and that the compiler implements these automatically if our types are composed entirely of Send and Sync types. If we implement a type that contains something that’s not Send or Sync such as raw pointers, and we want to mark our type as Send or Sync, that requires using unsafe. Rust can’t verify that our type upholds the guarantees that a type can be safely sent across threads or accessed from multiple threads, so we need to do those checks ourselves and indicate as such with unsafe.

Using unsafe to take one of these four actions isn’t wrong or frowned upon, but it is trickier to get unsafe code correct since the compiler isn’t able to help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use unsafe code, however, it’s possible to do so, and having the explicit unsafe annotation makes it easier to track down the source of problems if they occur.