The Rust Programming Language

One approach to concurrency that’s seen a rise in popularity as of late is message passing, where threads or actors communicate by sending each other messages containing data. Here’s the idea in slogan form:

Do not communicate by sharing memory; instead, share memory by communicating.

--Effective Go

A major tool to accomplish this goal is the channel. A channel has two halves, a transmitter and a receiver. One part of our code can call methods on the transmitter with the data we want to send, and another part can check the receiving end for arriving messages.

We’re going to work up to an example where we have one thread that will generate values and send them down a channel. The main thread will receive the values and print them out.

First, though, let’s start by creating a channel but not doing anything with it in Listing 16-6:

Filename: src/main.rs

use std::sync::mpsc;

fn main() {
    let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
#     tx.send(()).unwrap();
}

Listing 16-6: Creating a channel and assigning the two halves to tx and rx

The mpsc::channel function creates a new channel. mpsc stands for multiple producer, single consumer. In short, we can have multiple sending ends of a channel that produce values, but only one receiving end that consumes those values. We’re going to start with a single producer for now, but we’ll add multiple producers once we get this example working.

mpsc::channel returns a tuple: the first element is the sending end, and the second element is the receiving end. For historical reasons, many people use tx and rx to abbreviate transmitter and receiver, so those are the names we’re using for the variables bound to each end. We’re using a let statement with a pattern that destructures the tuples; we’ll be discussing the use of patterns in let statements and destructuring in Chapter 18.

Let’s move the transmitting end into a spawned thread and have it send one string, shown in Listing 16-7:

Filename: src/main.rs

use std::thread;
use std::sync::mpsc;

fn main() {
    let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();

    thread::spawn(move || {
        let val = String::from("hi");
        tx.send(val).unwrap();
    });
}

Listing 16-7: Moving tx to a spawned thread and sending “hi”

We’re using thread::spawn to create a new thread, just as we did in the previous section. We use a move closure to make tx move into the closure so that the thread owns it.

The transmitting end of a channel has the send method that takes the value we want to send down the channel. The send method returns a Result<T, E> type, because if the receiving end has already been dropped, there’s nowhere to send a value to, so the send operation would error. In this example, we’re simply calling unwrap to panic in case of error, but for a real application, we’d want to handle it properly. Chapter 9 is where you’d go to review strategies for proper error handling.

In Listing 16-8, let’s get the value from the receiving end of the channel in the main thread:

Filename: src/main.rs

use std::thread;
use std::sync::mpsc;

fn main() {
    let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();

    thread::spawn(move || {
        let val = String::from("hi");
        tx.send(val).unwrap();
    });

    let received = rx.recv().unwrap();
    println!("Got: {}", received);
}

Listing 16-8: Receiving the value “hi” in the main thread and printing it out

The receiving end of a channel has two useful methods: recv and try_recv. Here, we’re using recv, which is short for receive. This method will block execution until a value is sent down the channel. Once a value is sent, recv will return it in a Result<T, E>. When the sending end of the channel closes, recv will return an error. The try_recv method will not block; it instead returns a Result<T, E> immediately.

If we run the code in Listing 16-8, we’ll see the value printed out from the main thread:

Got: hi

Let’s do an experiment at this point to see how channels and ownership work together: we’ll try to use val in the spawned thread after we’ve sent it down the channel. Try compiling the code in Listing 16-9:

Filename: src/main.rs

use std::thread;
use std::sync::mpsc;

fn main() {
    let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();

    thread::spawn(move || {
        let val = String::from("hi");
        tx.send(val).unwrap();
        println!("val is {}", val);
    });

    let received = rx.recv().unwrap();
    println!("Got: {}", received);
}

Listing 16-9: Attempting to use val after we have sent it down the channel

Here, we try to print out val after we’ve sent it down the channel via tx.send. This is a bad idea: once we’ve sent the value to another thread, that thread could modify it or drop it before we try to use the value again. This could cause errors or unexpected results due to inconsistent or nonexistent data.

If we try to compile this code, Rust will error:

error[E0382]: use of moved value: `val`
  --> src/main.rs:10:31
   |
9  |         tx.send(val).unwrap();
   |                 --- value moved here
10 |         println!("val is {}", val);
   |                               ^^^ value used here after move
   |
   = note: move occurs because `val` has type `std::string::String`, which does
   not implement the `Copy` trait

Our concurrency mistake has caused a compile-time error! send takes ownership of its parameter and moves the value so that the value is owned by the receiver. This means we can’t accidentally use the value again after sending it; the ownership system checks that everything is okay.

In this regard, message passing is very similar to single ownership in Rust. Message passing enthusiasts enjoy message passing for similar reasons that Rustaceans enjoy Rust’s ownership: single ownership means certain classes of problems go away. If only one thread at a time can use some memory, there’s no chance of a data race.

The code in Listing 16-8 compiled and ran, but it wasn’t very interesting: it’s hard to see that we have two separate threads talking to each other over a channel. Listing 16-10 has some modifications that will prove to us that this code is running concurrently: the spawned thread will now send multiple messages and pause for a second between each message.

Filename: src/main.rs

use std::thread;
use std::sync::mpsc;
use std::time::Duration;

fn main() {
    let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();

    thread::spawn(move || {
        let vals = vec![
            String::from("hi"),
            String::from("from"),
            String::from("the"),
            String::from("thread"),
        ];

        for val in vals {
            tx.send(val).unwrap();
            thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
        }
    });

    for received in rx {
        println!("Got: {}", received);
    }
}

Listing 16-10: Sending multiple messages and pausing between each one

This time, we have a vector of strings in the spawned thread that we want to send to the main thread. We iterate over them, sending each individually and then pausing by calling the thread::sleep function with a Duration value of one second.

In the main thread, we’re not calling the recv function explicitly anymore: instead we’re treating rx as an iterator. For each value received, we’re printing it out. When the channel is closed, iteration will end.

When running the code in Listing 16-10, we’ll see this output, with a one second pause in between each line:

Got: hi
Got: from
Got: the
Got: thread

We don’t have any pausing or code that would take a while in the for loop in the main thread, so we can tell that the main thread is waiting to receive values from the spawned thread.

Near the start of this section, we mentioned that mpsc stood for multiple producer, single consumer. We can expand the code from Listing 16-10 to create multiple threads that all send values to the same receiver. We do that by cloning the transmitting half of the channel, as shown in Listing 16-11:

Filename: src/main.rs

# use std::thread;
# use std::sync::mpsc;
# use std::time::Duration;
#
# fn main() {
// ...snip...
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();

let tx1 = mpsc::Sender::clone(&tx);
thread::spawn(move || {
    let vals = vec![
        String::from("hi"),
        String::from("from"),
        String::from("the"),
        String::from("thread"),
    ];

    for val in vals {
        tx1.send(val).unwrap();
        thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
    }
});

thread::spawn(move || {
    let vals = vec![
        String::from("more"),
        String::from("messages"),
        String::from("for"),
        String::from("you"),
    ];

    for val in vals {
        tx.send(val).unwrap();
        thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
    }
});
// ...snip...
#
#     for received in rx {
#         println!("Got: {}", received);
#     }
# }

Listing 16-11: Sending multiple messages and pausing between each one

This time, before we create the first spawned thread, we call clone on the sending end of the channel. This will give us a new sending handle that we can pass to the first spawned thread. We’ll pass the original sending end of the channel to a second spawned thread, and each thread is sending different messages to the receiving end of the channel.

If you run this, you’ll probably see output like this:

Got: hi
Got: more
Got: from
Got: messages
Got: for
Got: the
Got: thread
Got: you

You might see the values in a different order, though. It depends on your system! This is what makes concurrency interesting as well as difficult. If you play around with thread::sleep, giving it different values in the different threads, you can make the runs more non-deterministic and create different output each time.

Now that we’ve seen how channels work, let’s look at shared-memory concurrency.